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docs/#defineASTandGrammar.md#
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# Ch1 定義抽象語法樹和語法
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## 抽象語法樹
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C語言、Python語言就算有許多的關鍵字、操作符、符號或是常數變數,在編譯器分析語法以後,最後會轉成編譯器可以操作的樹結構,然後再轉成我們想要的另一個語言的樹,最後輸出另一個語言的程式碼。
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但是什麼叫做抽象語法樹呢?我們先從一點句法知識來談。
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學過中學中文文法的課程,會背一堆類似「主詞+動詞+受詞」、「主詞+(有/無)+受詞」的結構。可以換個說法,是句子=「主詞+動詞+受詞」或是「主詞+(有/無)+賓詞」的形式。我們將「=」寫成「::=」,「/」(或是)寫成「|」,「動詞」擴充變成「動詞片語」,就變成:
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```
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句子 ::= (主詞 動詞片語 受詞) | (主詞 (有 | 無) 受詞)...
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```
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為了易讀所以寫成:
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```
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句子 ::= 主詞 動詞片語 受詞
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| 主詞 (有 | 無) 受詞
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| ...
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```
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用這種形式表示的語言句法,叫做「BNF文法」。這種句法看起來很語言學,但是我們想:受詞和主詞可以為名詞、專有名詞或是「形容詞+名詞」;動詞片語可以為動詞或是「副詞+動詞」。因此這樣之規則,就可以生成許多句子,比如「我有筆」、「張三養貓」、「小芳慢慢移動檯燈」等等的句子。然後句子可以用上述規則,分析成語法的樹狀結構,如下圖把「我曾旅居新竹」寫成語法樹。
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<figure markdown>
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![「我曾旅居新竹」的語法樹](syntaxtree.svg "")
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<figcaption>「我曾旅居新竹」的語法樹</figcaption>
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</figure>
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同理,程式語言通常也有更嚴謹的這樣生成文法,可以用幾個簡單規則生出繁多的程式碼,而且合乎語法規定。這種生成文法也可檢查輸入的程式碼有沒有符合句法的規定。而這種語法生成的程式碼,去掉不需要的逗號等等符號,當然也可以做成語法樹,就是抽象語法樹 (abstract syntax tree, AST),如下圖所示。
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<figure markdown>
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![「(2+2) == 4」的語法樹。注意括號已經刪除。](syntaxtree2.svg "")
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<figcaption>「(2+2) == 4」的語法樹。注意括號已經刪除。</figcaption>
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</figure>
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而上文的抽象語法樹,可以是我們把程式經過編譯器分析之後,用「樹」儲存的資料結構。而樹形結構我們可以使用Lisp語言的S表達式(S-expressiom; S-exp)來表示,本文採用這樣的表示方法。所以上文的`(2+2)==4`即`(== (+ 2 2) 4)`;`let baz = foo("bar")`,若是把foo("bar")這種函數套用(apply)寫成`(APPLY foo "bar")`,則其S-exp語法樹可寫為`(let baz(APPLY foo "bar"))`。
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## 決定語法
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那我們要如何制定這個語言的語法,這樣我們才能夠寫出符合這個語法的函數,然後再用tokenizer和parser轉成AST樹。
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不考慮` + - * /`這種運算子,以及向量的表示子,函數可以用`ID(arg1, arg2, ...)`這種方式來表示,其中`arg_x`是引數,`ID`是識別子(identifier,可以把它想成變函數的名字)。
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變數可以是`ID`,`arg_n`可以是`ID`或常數(量)。
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常數(量)的表示法可以是下列任一:
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- 浮點數如0.0, 36.8,BNF風格的表達法為:`[0-9]+ '.' [0-9]+`。`'c'`指c這個文字,`+`表示前面的重複1次以上;`[0-9]`表示數字0到9。
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- 整數如22、0:`[0-9]+`
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- 字串:`'"' (不是「"」的任一字元|('\' '"')) '"'`(`.`表示任何一個字元)
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然而我們還是需要綁定變數`let x = var in boby`(在`body`裡面,`x`指代`var`)、`set x = var`(改變變數值)、lambda`lambda (x)=>{body}`。另外為了要區別要在PDF印上去的一般字元,在這個檔案的常數、變數、函數、關鍵字等前後需要加@表示(但是函數、lambda裡面的變數不用)。比如`@foo(a, b)@`、`@lambda(x)@`、`@"IAmAString"@`、`@2.2@`、`@3@`(後三者應該很少用到)可是若需在PDF印`@`時怎辦?那就用`\@`。比如`foo\@example.com`。
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所以我們可以定義以下的BNF風文法:
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```
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Language ::= PrintTxt | Exprs
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PrintTxt ::= (('\' '@')| 非@字元)+ //「我是一隻貓」或是「www\@example.com」
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Exprs ::= @ Expr* @ // *表示前面的重複0次以上(包含不出現)
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Expr ::= (Letting | Setting | Lambda | Apply | Var| Const) | "(" Expr ")"
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Letting ::= "let" Var "=" Expr "in" Expr // let foo = 12 in ...
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Setting ::= Var ":=" Expr "in" Expr // foo := a in ...
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Lambda ::= "fn" Var "->" Expr // fn x -> 12
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Apply ::= Expr Expr // foo 3 即foo(3)
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Var ::= ID
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Const ::= String | Float | Int
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ID ::= ("_" | [a-z] | [A-Z]) ("_" | [0-9] | [a-z] | [A-Z])+
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Integer ::= [0-9]+
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Float ::= [0-9]+ "." [0-9]+
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String ::= '"' (不是「"」的任一字元|('\' '"')) '"'
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```
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## 用ParserCombinator進行tokenize
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Parser combinator(分析器組合子)是一種利用高階函數來簡化分析器撰寫的辦法。這講到頭來會涉及「遞歸下降分析」以及其他編譯理論的東西,但太難了(聽說可以讀編譯理論的「龍書我們可以製作一個小的tokenizer。但是因為自己寫parser combinator太累了,所以我們就用nom來幫我們代勞。
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」)。講一個簡單的案例吧:
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假設我們想要將字串的開頭match 0~9 之中的其中一個,我們可以寫一個函數match0to9如下:
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```
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function match0to9(string){
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if (string[0] in 0,1,..,9){
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let rest = string[1:];
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let matched = string[0];
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return {type: "OK", rest : rest, matched : matched};
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}
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else{
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return {type : "Nothing"};
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}
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}
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```
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假設我們要將字串`s`的前3個字的match 0~9呢?如果會高階函數的話,引入一個`then`函數,然後把`match0to9`傳進去,這樣寫起來比較簡潔,行數可以比較少:
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```
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function thenDo(input, fun){
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if (input.type != "Nothing"{
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middle = fun(input.rest);
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if (middle.type != "Nothing"){
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// add the matched character of input to the head of the result
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middle.matched = input.matched + middle.matched
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return middle;
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}else{
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return middle; // return nothing
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}
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}else{
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input; // return nothing
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}
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}
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// "s" should be wrapped in a object
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let sWrapped = {type : "OK", rest : s, matched : ""};
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// match0~9 3 times
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thenDo(thenDo(thenDo(sWrapped, match0to9), match0to9), match0to9)
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```
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我們可以製作一個小的tokenizer。但是因為自己寫parser combinator太累了,所以我們就用nom來幫我們代勞。
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安裝nom可以用:`cargo run nom`。
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假設我們要match 0-9任意次以上(就是integer),我們可以這樣寫:
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```
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// import all the parser unit for string
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use nom::character::complete::*;
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// for the return type
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use nom::IResult;
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// integer ::= [0-9]+
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pub fn integer(input: &str) -> IResult<&str, &str> {
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return digit1(input) ; // [0-9]+
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}
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// test parser
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#[cfg(test)]
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mod tests {
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// import the functions ouside mod tests
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use super::*;
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// test integer
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#[test]
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fn test_integer() {
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//if no error is shown, the function passes the test
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assert_eq!(integer("12345"), Ok(("", "12345")));
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assert_eq!(integer("0"), Ok(("", "0")));
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}
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}
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```
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用`cargo run`可以順利通過:
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```
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running 1 test
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test tests::test_integer ... ok
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test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s
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```
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我們做第二個tokenizer,`float`:
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其中的`recognize`蒐集所有包在裡面的`parsers`的string。
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```
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// collect matched strings of all the parsers,
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use nom::combinator::recognize;
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// given 2 parser and gets the result as (1st_matched, 2nd_matched),
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use nom::sequence::pair;
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// exact matching characters
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use nom::bytes::complete::tag;
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// float ::= [0-9]+ "." [0-9]+
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pub fn float(input: &str) -> IResult<&str, &str>{
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// [0-9]+ "." [0-9]+
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// "12.345" returns Ok((else, (("12", '.'), "345"))), then recgonize them as
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// Ok("12.345")
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let a =
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recognize(pair(pair(digit1, tag(".")), digit1))(input);
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return a;
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}
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```
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parser `identifier`(引用的函數的名稱空間略)。使用`fold_may0`和新的空vector來儲存match多次的parser的符合結果:
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```
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pub fn identifier(input : &str) -> IResult<&str, &str>{
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return recognize(pair(
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// 1st character is a-z, A-Z or _
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satisfy(|c| (is_alphabetic(c as u8) || c == '_')),
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// the tail characters (0+ times matched) storing in a vector
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fold_many0(
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// a-z, A-Z, 0-9, _
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satisfy(|c| (is_alphanumeric(c as u8) || c == '_')),
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// initial vector
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Vec::new,
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// once it matches, append the matched item to the vector.
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|mut acc: Vec<_>, item| {
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acc.push(item);
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acc
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}
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)))(input);
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}
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```
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## 平面操作
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### 基本函數與直譯器
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我們藉由以上的概念,可以定義一個將文字、線條等形狀排列到2D平面的語法,畢竟不論輸出PDF、SVG等等,粗略而言,就是一種2D平面安放文字的語言。另外PDF的格式相當晦澀,就算_PDF Explained_的PDF教學,也還是要輔助使用其他的工具,沒辦法看了就自己手刻PDF,所以還是用`printpdf`來教學吧。
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現在我們初始化一個專案目錄,然後將需要的S-exp函式庫和pdf函數庫指定為相依函式庫:
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```
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cargo init;
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cargo add rsexp printpdf;
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```
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我們可以定義一些表達式(包含函數、資料結構,S-exp形式)的說明如下。`'()`表示空列表(empty list),因為都要表達是函數的引用,所有的函數寫成形式`(Func "函數名稱" (引數1 引數2 ....))`。Float指64位元浮點數:
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```
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(px Float) ; px表達pixel單位,儲存浮點數
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(pt Float) ; pt表達point單位,儲存浮點數
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(style (str pt)) ; 文字樣式。String表示字型的路徑[fontPath],Float表示字型大小(in Pt) (fontSize)
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(str String) ; 儲存字串
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(func "createPDF" '()) ;新增PDF
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(func "createPage" '()) ;新增頁面
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(func "writePdf" '(str)) ;寫入PDF頁面,String是PATH
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(func "putchar" '(str style x y)) ; x 軸向右,y 軸向下,str 表示字元(char),style 表示文字樣式
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```
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`main.rs`先引用函式庫:
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`use printpdf::*;`
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其中 `px`、`pt`是單位,所以可以在`main.rs`這樣定義:
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```
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enum Measure{
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Pt(f64),
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Px(f64)
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}
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```
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最後一次定義expression:
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```
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enum Expr{
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Mea(Measure), // wrapper for measure
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Str(&str),
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Style{font_path : Measure, size : Measure},
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Func(&str, Vec<Expr>),
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Void // return nothing
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}
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```
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然後我們可以這樣定義一個處理輸入輸出的interpreter於`interp`,並修改`main.rs`如下,縱使我們準時:
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```
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fn interp(exp : Expr)->(){
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// the function will be extended.
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match exp {
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Expr::Mea(Measure::Pt(x)) => println!("{:?} pt", x),
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Expr::Mea(Measure::Px(x)) => println!("{:?} px", x),
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_ => println!("not found expression"),
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};
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}
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// exexute interpreter
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fn main() {
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interp(Expr::Mea(Measure::Pt(2.2)));
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interp(Expr::Flo(2.2));
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}
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```
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1
docs/.#defineASTandGrammar.md
Symbolic link
1
docs/.#defineASTandGrammar.md
Symbolic link
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yoxem@yoxem-HP-Laptop-15-fd0072.12930:1701431741
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{"message":"1 warning emitted","code":null,"level":"warning","spans":[],"children":[],"rendered":"\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[33mwarning\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m: 1 warning emitted\u001b[0m\n\n"}
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{"message":"cannot find macro `recognize` in this scope","code":null,"level":"error","spans":[{"file_name":"src/main.rs","byte_start":1008,"byte_end":1017,"line_start":36,"line_end":36,"column_start":12,"column_end":21,"is_primary":true,"text":[{"text":" return recognize!(pair(","highlight_start":12,"highlight_end":21}],"label":null,"suggested_replacement":null,"suggestion_applicability":null,"expansion":null}],"children":[{"message":"`recognize` is imported here, but it is a function, not a macro","code":null,"level":"note","spans":[{"file_name":"src/main.rs","byte_start":229,"byte_end":255,"line_start":10,"line_end":10,"column_start":5,"column_end":31,"is_primary":true,"text":[{"text":"use nom::combinator::recognize;","highlight_start":5,"highlight_end":31}],"label":null,"suggested_replacement":null,"suggestion_applicability":null,"expansion":null}],"children":[],"rendered":null}],"rendered":"\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;9merror\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m: cannot find macro `recognize` in this scope\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m--> \u001b[0m\u001b[0msrc/main.rs:36:12\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m36\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m return recognize!(pair(\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m| \u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;9m^^^^^^^^^\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;10mnote\u001b[0m\u001b[0m: `recognize` is imported here, but it is a function, not a macro\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m--> \u001b[0m\u001b[0msrc/main.rs:10:5\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m10\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0muse nom::combinator::recognize;\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m| \u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;10m^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^\u001b[0m\n\n"}
|
||||
{"message":"unused imports: `is_alphabetic`, `is_alphanumeric`","code":{"code":"unused_imports","explanation":null},"level":"warning","spans":[{"file_name":"src/main.rs","byte_start":75,"byte_end":90,"line_start":2,"line_end":2,"column_start":35,"column_end":50,"is_primary":true,"text":[{"text":"use nom::character::{complete::*, is_alphanumeric, is_alphabetic};","highlight_start":35,"highlight_end":50}],"label":null,"suggested_replacement":null,"suggestion_applicability":null,"expansion":null},{"file_name":"src/main.rs","byte_start":92,"byte_end":105,"line_start":2,"line_end":2,"column_start":52,"column_end":65,"is_primary":true,"text":[{"text":"use nom::character::{complete::*, is_alphanumeric, is_alphabetic};","highlight_start":52,"highlight_end":65}],"label":null,"suggested_replacement":null,"suggestion_applicability":null,"expansion":null}],"children":[{"message":"`#[warn(unused_imports)]` on by default","code":null,"level":"note","spans":[],"children":[],"rendered":null},{"message":"remove the unused imports","code":null,"level":"help","spans":[{"file_name":"src/main.rs","byte_start":73,"byte_end":105,"line_start":2,"line_end":2,"column_start":33,"column_end":65,"is_primary":true,"text":[{"text":"use nom::character::{complete::*, is_alphanumeric, is_alphabetic};","highlight_start":33,"highlight_end":65}],"label":null,"suggested_replacement":"","suggestion_applicability":"MachineApplicable","expansion":null}],"children":[],"rendered":null}],"rendered":"\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[33mwarning\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m: unused imports: `is_alphabetic`, `is_alphanumeric`\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m--> \u001b[0m\u001b[0msrc/main.rs:2:35\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m2\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0muse nom::character::{complete::*, is_alphanumeric, is_alphabetic};\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m| \u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[33m^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[33m^^^^^^^^^^^^^\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m= \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1mnote\u001b[0m\u001b[0m: `#[warn(unused_imports)]` on by default\u001b[0m\n\n"}
|
||||
{"message":"unused `#[macro_use]` import","code":{"code":"unused_imports","explanation":null},"level":"warning","spans":[{"file_name":"src/main.rs","byte_start":109,"byte_end":121,"line_start":4,"line_end":4,"column_start":1,"column_end":13,"is_primary":true,"text":[{"text":"#[macro_use]","highlight_start":1,"highlight_end":13}],"label":null,"suggested_replacement":null,"suggestion_applicability":null,"expansion":null}],"children":[],"rendered":"\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[33mwarning\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m: unused `#[macro_use]` import\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m--> \u001b[0m\u001b[0msrc/main.rs:4:1\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m4\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m#[macro_use]\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m| \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[33m^^^^^^^^^^^^\u001b[0m\n\n"}
|
||||
{"message":"unused import: `nom::multi::fold_many0`","code":{"code":"unused_imports","explanation":null},"level":"warning","spans":[{"file_name":"src/main.rs","byte_start":440,"byte_end":462,"line_start":16,"line_end":16,"column_start":5,"column_end":27,"is_primary":true,"text":[{"text":"use nom::multi::fold_many0;","highlight_start":5,"highlight_end":27}],"label":null,"suggested_replacement":null,"suggestion_applicability":null,"expansion":null}],"children":[{"message":"remove the whole `use` item","code":null,"level":"help","spans":[{"file_name":"src/main.rs","byte_start":436,"byte_end":463,"line_start":16,"line_end":16,"column_start":1,"column_end":28,"is_primary":true,"text":[{"text":"use nom::multi::fold_many0;","highlight_start":1,"highlight_end":28}],"label":null,"suggested_replacement":"","suggestion_applicability":"MachineApplicable","expansion":null}],"children":[],"rendered":null}],"rendered":"\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[33mwarning\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m: unused import: `nom::multi::fold_many0`\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m--> \u001b[0m\u001b[0msrc/main.rs:16:5\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m16\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m|\u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0muse nom::multi::fold_many0;\u001b[0m\n\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;12m| \u001b[0m\u001b[0m \u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[33m^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^\u001b[0m\n\n"}
|
||||
{"message":"aborting due to previous error; 3 warnings emitted","code":null,"level":"error","spans":[],"children":[],"rendered":"\u001b[0m\u001b[1m\u001b[38;5;9merror\u001b[0m\u001b[0m\u001b[1m: aborting due to previous error; 3 warnings emitted\u001b[0m\n\n"}
|
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